Bill of Lading Types, Functions and Completion Guide

A bill of lading plays a central role in international logistics and is a key document in ocean freight transportation. It not only confirms that the carrier has received the cargo, but also serves as evidence of the contract of carriage by sea. A bill of lading is distinctive because it can perform several important functions at the same time, from confirming receipt of the cargo to supporting trade finance and insurance transactions. As global trade and international freight volumes grow, understanding the legal and operational aspects of bills of lading is essential for exporters, importers, carriers, freight forwarders, banks, and other participants in international trade.

What Is a Bill of Lading?

A Bill of Lading (B/L) is a document issued by a carrier to a shipper confirming that the cargo has been accepted for carriage and recording the terms of transportation. Depending on the type of bill of lading, the document may also perform a document-of-title function, allowing the lawful holder to demand delivery of the cargo and transfer the rights evidenced by the document to another party.

It is important to distinguish the right to dispose of cargo under a bill of lading from ownership of the goods themselves. Transfer of title is determined not only by the transport document, but also by the sales contract, applicable law, and the terms of the specific transaction.

The legal framework governing bills of lading developed alongside international maritime trade. Today, requirements for the document are determined by national law, the carrier's terms of carriage, and applicable international rules.

At the international level, the Hague Rules of 1924, the Hague-Visby Rules, the Hamburg Rules of 1978, and other international regimes are particularly significant. Which regime applies depends on the jurisdiction and the circumstances of the carriage.

The Rotterdam Rules were adopted in 2008 as the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea. However, as of September 2026, the Convention has not entered into force: action by 20 states is required, while the number of contracting states remains below that threshold.

In the Russian Federation, the main rules governing bills of lading are contained in the Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation. In particular, Articles 142-149 regulate the issuance, contents, types, transfer, and right of disposal of cargo under a bill of lading. The Civil Code of the Russian Federation also expressly classifies a bill of lading as a security.

The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Code within this range address different aspects of the bill of lading regime. Article 142 covers issuance of a bill of lading, Article 143 provides for the possibility of issuing a sea waybill or another document instead of a bill of lading, Article 144 establishes requirements for the contents of a bill of lading and separately addresses the particulars of a shipped-on-board bill of lading, while Article 145 covers carrier reservations and the evidentiary effect of cargo information. Articles 146-149 regulate types of bills of lading, multiple originals, transfer of the document, and disposal of the cargo.

A bill of lading is therefore an integral part of carriage by sea and may simultaneously perform transport, evidentiary, and document-of-title functions.

Why Is a Bill of Lading Needed and Who Can Issue It?

A bill of lading is used to legally document the carrier's receipt of the cargo, confirm the terms of the contract of carriage by sea, and, for applicable types of document, enable disposal of the cargo while it is in transit.

A bill of lading is issued by the carrier or an authorized party acting on the carrier's behalf after the cargo has been accepted for carriage. Once the cargo has actually been loaded on board the vessel, a Shipped on Board B/L may be issued at the shipper's request.

An NVOCC (Non-Vessel Operating Common Carrier) is a contractual ocean carrier that does not operate its own vessel for the relevant carriage, but enters into a contract with the customer and may issue its own House Bill of Lading. Specific requirements governing NVOCC status and activities vary by jurisdiction.

A freight forwarder acting solely as the customer's agent should not automatically be treated as a carrier. However, a freight forwarder may assume the role of contractual carrier and issue its own transport document where permitted by applicable law and the terms of carriage.

Unlike a CMR consignment note, an air waybill, and an ordinary sea waybill, some types of bills of lading have document-of-title and transferable characteristics. This feature makes the Bill of Lading important not only for transportation, but also for international trade and bank financing.

Who Is Involved in Preparing a Bill of Lading?

Shipper - the party identified as the shipper in the transport document. The carrier or freight forwarder receives the cargo information used to prepare the bill of lading from this party.

Consignee - the consignee or the party in whose favor the document is issued. How the consignee is stated depends on the type of bill of lading: it may be a specific company, a bank, or the wording "to order" in the case of an order bill.

Notify Party - the party that must be notified of the cargo's arrival or other transportation events. The Notify Party does not automatically become the consignee and does not acquire the right to take delivery of the cargo merely by being named in this field.

Carrier - the carrier that enters into the contract of carriage and assumes the corresponding obligations.

NVOCC - a contractual carrier that does not operate its own vessel for the relevant carriage, purchases transportation services from an ocean carrier, and may resell them to customers in its own name.

Freight Forwarder - a freight forwarder that arranges transportation and related operations. Depending on the contract, the freight forwarder may act as an agent or assume a broader scope of responsibility.

What Is the Difference Between a Master Bill of Lading and a House Bill of Lading?

A Master Bill of Lading (MBL) is typically issued by an ocean carrier or its agent, while a House Bill of Lading (HBL) is issued by an NVOCC or freight forwarder acting as a contractual carrier. Several House B/Ls may relate to one consolidated shipment moving under a single Master B/L.

A House B/L simplifies the handling of consolidated shipments and allows an NVOCC to manage the customer relationship directly. The trade-off is the addition of another contractual and documentary layer that must be controlled.

Key Functions of a Bill of Lading in Commercial Transactions

A bill of lading performs several functions, and the combination of these functions distinguishes it from most ordinary transport documents.

1. Carrier's receipt for the cargo. The bill of lading confirms that the carrier has received the cargo and records its description, quantity, and apparent condition to the extent reflected in the information and checks stated in the document.
2. Evidence of the terms of the contract of carriage by sea. The bill of lading records material transportation details and serves as evidence of the contractual relationship.
3. Document-of-title function. For applicable types of B/L, the lawful holder of the document may demand delivery of the cargo and transfer the rights evidenced by the document in the prescribed manner.

Under Russian law, a bill of lading is expressly classified as a security. However, the method of transferring the rights evidenced by it depends on the type of bill of lading.

How Is a Bill of Lading Transferred?

A straight bill of lading is transferred in accordance with the rules applicable to named documents and assignments of claims.

In international carriage, this statement must be applied with regard to the relevant jurisdiction. Under Russian law, Article 148 of the Merchant Shipping Code permits transfer of a straight bill of lading by named endorsements or in another form in accordance with the rules governing assignment of claims. In the English legal tradition, a Straight Bill of Lading is treated as non-negotiable and is not intended for repeated transfer by endorsement in the manner of an Order B/L. The Russian rules governing transfer of a straight bill of lading therefore cannot automatically be applied to a Straight B/L governed by foreign law.

An order bill of lading may be transferred by endorsement.

A bearer bill of lading is transferred by delivery of the document.

For an Order B/L, continuity of the endorsement chain is particularly important. If the document has been transferred several times, the party claiming the cargo must be supported by an unbroken sequence of endorsements.

What Is an Endorsement of a Bill of Lading?

An endorsement is a transfer notation on an order bill of lading by which the rights evidenced by the document are transferred to another party. It may be used, for example, when goods are sold while in ocean transit or when the bill of lading is transferred to a bank as part of a trade finance transaction.

A special endorsement identifies the specific party to whom the document is transferred. A blank endorsement does not name the new holder, so subsequent circulation of the document requires particularly careful control.

An endorsement should not automatically be equated with a transfer of ownership of the goods. Title is also determined by the commercial contract and applicable law.

Trade Finance and Documentary Payments

Bills of lading play an important role in trade finance. Depending on the structure of the transaction, a bank may receive a set of transport documents under a documentary credit or documentary collection.

Under a documentary credit, the bank examines documents rather than the actual condition of the goods. UCP 600 establishes separate requirements for a Bill of Lading, Non-Negotiable Sea Waybill, and Charter Party Bill of Lading.

How Does a Bank Examine a Bill of Lading Under UCP 600?

For a conventional ocean Bill of Lading, Article 20 of UCP 600 includes requirements concerning the identification of the carrier, signature, vessel, port of loading, port of discharge, and evidence that the goods have been shipped on board.

If a bill of lading is signed by an agent, a signature accompanied only by the designation "agent" is not sufficient. The document must make clear whether the agent is acting for the carrier or for the master. If the agent signs on behalf of the carrier, the carrier must be identified by name. Failure to meet these requirements may result in a documentary discrepancy when the bank examines the documents.

The bank compares the document with the terms of the letter of credit. A bill of lading may therefore be perfectly acceptable to the carrier but still fail to comply with a specific letter of credit.

For this reason, when a documentary credit is used, the draft B/L should preferably be checked before the final set of originals is issued.

Clean Bill of Lading in Banking Practice

The term Clean B/L does not mean that the carrier guarantees the quality of the goods. A clean transport document is one that contains no clause or notation expressly declaring a defective condition of the cargo or its packaging.

UCP 600 provides for banks to accept a clean transport document. The word "clean" itself does not need to appear on the document.

Why Can a Paper Bill of Lading Delay Cargo Release?

To obtain cargo under an Original B/L, the original document must generally be properly presented or surrendered in accordance with the carrier's procedures and applicable law.

If the vessel arrives before the original documents, the cargo may remain unreleased, and the consignee may incur storage, demurrage, or other port charges. Sea Waybills, Telex Release procedures, and electronic bills of lading are used to reduce this risk.

Main Types of Bills of Lading and Their Characteristics

Different types of bills of lading allow participants in international logistics to select a document based on the transaction structure, payment method, need to transfer rights to the cargo, and bank requirements.

Classification by Method of Transferring Rights to the Cargo

An Order B/L is made out to the order of the shipper, consignee, or another named party and may be transferred by endorsement. This mechanism is commonly used in trade transactions where the goods may be resold while in transit.

A Straight B/L identifies a specific consignee. The rules governing its transfer and whether the original must be presented depend on applicable law and the carrier's terms. A Straight B/L therefore should not automatically be treated as equivalent to a Sea Waybill.

A Bearer B/L allows the holder of the document to demand delivery of the cargo. The ease of transfer also creates an increased risk if the original is lost or stolen, so this form is rare in modern container trade.

Classification by Clauses Concerning Cargo Condition

A Clean B/L contains no clause expressly declaring a defective condition of the cargo or its packaging.

A Claused / Foul B/L contains remarks by the carrier concerning the condition of the cargo, its packaging, or information that the carrier cannot verify. Such a document may create additional risks for the consignee, insurer, or bank.

What Do Shipper's Load and Count and Said to Contain Mean?

The phrases Shipper's Load and Count and Said to Contain indicate that certain information about the contents of the container, quantity, or loading method was provided by the shipper and was not necessarily verified by the carrier.

This is particularly common for containers that are loaded and sealed by the shipper before being handed over to the ocean carrier.

These notations do not by themselves constitute a clause stating that the cargo is damaged. UCP 600 expressly provides that a transport document containing terms such as Shipper's Load and Count or Said by Shipper to Contain may be acceptable.

Classification by Transportation Arrangement

A Through B/L is used for transportation involving several stages or modes of transport where the document covers the relevant transportation chain.

A Charter Party B/L relates to carriage performed under a charter party. In banking practice, UCP 600 treats this document as a separate category.

A Direct B/L is generally used for transportation on a route without an additional House B/L. The exact use of the term may vary between carriers and national manifesting systems.

Classification by Time of Issue

A Shipped on Board B/L confirms that the cargo has been loaded on a specified vessel.

A Received for Shipment B/L confirms that the carrier has received the cargo before it is actually loaded on board the vessel.

What Is an On Board Notation?

An On Board notation is a notation confirming that the goods have been loaded on the named vessel and stating the corresponding date. It is particularly important in transactions involving documentary credits.

The date of issue of the Bill of Lading and the shipment date are not always the same. Under UCP 600, if the B/L contains a separate on board notation showing the date of loading, that date is treated as the shipment date for document examination purposes.

Original B/L, Surrendered B/L, Telex Release, and Sea Waybill

These concepts are often confused, although they describe different approaches to transport documentation and cargo release.

What Is Telex Release?

Telex Release is not a separate type of bill of lading, but a procedure for releasing cargo without presentation of a paper original at the port of destination.

The shipper typically surrenders the full set of originals to the carrier or completes another surrender procedure prescribed by the carrier. The agent at the port of destination then receives authorization to release the cargo to the designated consignee.

The practical benefit is that the originals do not need to be sent by international courier. The trade-off is that, after surrender, the shipper no longer controls release of the cargo through possession of the original B/L.

What Does Express Release Mean?

The term Express Release is not used consistently by all carriers. Depending on the ocean carrier, it may refer to expedited release without a paper original, a procedure similar to Telex Release, or the use of a non-negotiable transport document.

The meaning of Express Release should therefore be checked against the terms of the specific carrier. It is one of the terms that cannot safely be interpreted in the same way across all ocean carriers.

How Does a Bill of Lading Differ from a Sea Waybill?

The key difference is the document-of-title function. A negotiable Bill of Lading allows the rights evidenced by the document to be transferred, while a Sea Waybill is a non-negotiable sea transport document used to release cargo to the named consignee without circulation of an original document of title.

What Is an Electronic Bill of Lading, or eBL?

An electronic Bill of Lading (eBL) is a digital document capable of performing the functions of a traditional Bill of Lading in an electronic environment. An eBL should not be treated as merely a PDF file or a scanned copy of a paper document.

A fully functional electronic transferable record must provide reliable identification of the record itself, maintain its integrity, and identify the party that has exclusive control over it.

This concept is reflected in the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records of 2017 (MLETR), under which an electronic transferable record is treated as the functional equivalent of the corresponding paper document when the prescribed conditions are met.

The practical advantage of an eBL is that it can be issued, transferred, and surrendered quickly without couriering original documents. Structured data also enables electronic document workflows to be integrated with TMS, ERP, banking, and other systems.

The main trade-off is the need for legal and technological interoperability. The carrier, shipper, consignee, bank, and other parties must all be able to work with the selected eBL model.

By 2026, the infrastructure has become considerably more mature. DCSA is developing standards for the issuance, surrender, and cross-platform exchange of eBLs, and several eBL platforms have already implemented an interoperable exchange mechanism between different systems.

What Is a Switch Bill of Lading?

A Switch Bill of Lading is a replacement set of bills of lading that may be issued by the carrier, upon an agreed request, in place of the original set.

It may be used, for example, in intermediary or triangular trade transactions where certain information about the parties or commercial chain may lawfully be changed.

The original documents must be taken out of circulation in accordance with the carrier's procedure. Having two valid sets of original documents of title for the same cargo in circulation at the same time would create an obvious risk of competing claims.

A Switch B/L is a sensitive procedure. It must not be used to misrepresent the origin of goods, mandatory customs data, cargo characteristics, or other information that may not legally be changed under applicable law or carrier rules.

Summary Classification of Bills of Lading and Related Transport Documents

The table below includes Sea Waybills and eBLs alongside actual types of bills of lading because, in practice, they are frequently compared with a conventional paper B/L when selecting a documentation process. A Sea Waybill is a separate sea transport document, while eBL refers to the electronic form of a bill of lading rather than a separate category of rights to the cargo.

How to Complete a Bill of Lading Correctly

Accuracy of the information in a bill of lading is critical because errors may lead to transportation delays, customs clearance problems, additional costs, documentary discrepancies, or legal disputes.

Steps and Recommendations for Completing a Bill of Lading

1. Verify cargo information: make sure the description, weight, volume, number of packages, container numbers, seal numbers, and marks match the shipping instructions and other documents.
2. Verify the parties: enter the correct legal names and addresses of the Shipper, Consignee, and Notify Party.
3. Verify the route: make sure the Port of Loading, Port of Discharge, and, where applicable, Place of Receipt and Place of Delivery are correct.
4. Verify the vessel and voyage: Vessel and Voyage must correspond to the actual transportation.
5. Verify the date: distinguish between the date the document is issued and the date the cargo is actually loaded on board.
6. Select the document type: determine in advance whether an Original B/L, Sea Waybill, eBL, or another permitted release arrangement is required.
7. Verify freight payment terms: Freight Prepaid or Freight Collect must match the parties' agreement and the instructions given to the carrier.
8. Verify bank requirements: if a letter of credit is used, the draft B/L should be checked against the terms of the credit before the originals are issued.
9. Review before issuance: the draft B/L should be approved before the final document is issued.

Common Errors and Their Consequences

• Inaccurate cargo description: may create problems with customs, the manifest, insurance, and the consignee.
• Incorrect number of packages or weight: may create discrepancies between the B/L, customs declaration, packing list, and other documents.
• Incorrect ports: may cause serious operational problems and additional costs.
• Error in the Consignee field: may make cargo release impossible until the document is corrected.
• Non-compliance with the letter of credit: may result in a documentary discrepancy and delayed payment.
• Incorrect signature: in transactions under a documentary credit, the document may be found non-compliant with UCP 600 if an agent signs the B/L without clearly indicating whether the agent acts on behalf of the carrier or the master.
• Late amendment: once the originals have been issued, changing the B/L is generally more complicated and may require return of the set, approvals, and payment of additional fees.

Why Is It Important to Check the Draft B/L?

A Draft B/L is a preliminary version of the bill of lading provided for review before final issuance. This is the stage at which errors can be corrected most easily without returning originals or going through a complex amendment procedure.

Particular attention should be paid to the legal names of the parties, route, cargo description, number of packages, weight, containers, seal numbers, freight terms, and any information relevant to the letter of credit.

Information Included in a Bill of Lading

The list of mandatory particulars depends on applicable law and the type of document. Under Russian law, the contents of a bill of lading are governed by Article 144 of the Merchant Shipping Code.

Article 144 covers more than the basic set of required information. Paragraph 2 separately specifies the particulars of a shipped-on-board bill of lading after the cargo has been loaded on board the vessel. Article 145 of the Merchant Shipping Code supplements the content requirements with rules governing carrier reservations where the carrier has grounds to believe that cargo information is inaccurate or has no reasonable means of verifying it.

Main Particulars

• name and location of the carrier;
• port of loading;
• date the cargo was received by the carrier;
• name of the shipper;
• port of discharge;
• name of the consignee, if stated;
• cargo description and identifying information;
• number of packages, weight, or another indication of quantity;
• apparent condition of the cargo and packaging;
• freight information where required;
• time and place of issue of the document;
• number of originals;
• signature of the carrier or a person acting on the carrier's behalf.

Anatomy of a Bill of Lading

Forms used by different ocean carriers vary, but most modern B/Ls contain a similar set of information fields.

Freight Prepaid and Freight Collect

Freight Prepaid means that the relevant transportation charges are payable at origin or by the party responsible for prepaid charges.

Freight Collect means that the relevant charges are collected at destination.

These notations cannot automatically be equated with a particular Incoterm. For example, Freight Prepaid does not by itself prove that CIF applies, and Freight Collect does not automatically mean FOB. Allocation of costs and risks is determined by the sales contract and the selected Incoterms rule.

How Many Original Bills of Lading Are Issued?

The number of originals is stated directly in the document. In practice, a set of three originals is common, but this is not a universal rule.

Under the Russian Merchant Shipping Code, the shipper may be issued several originals, and the number must be stated in each copy. Once the cargo has been released against the first properly presented original, the remaining originals cease to have effect.

Practical Use of Bills of Lading in Logistics

The choice of bill of lading depends less on the duration of the transportation than on the structure of the trade transaction, the relationship between the parties, payment terms, and the need to control disposition of the cargo.

• An Order B/L may be used in commodity trading where the cargo is sold while the vessel is in transit.
• A Straight B/L is used where the consignee is known in advance and the parties do not plan to transfer the document by conventional endorsement.
• A Sea Waybill is convenient for shipments between affiliated companies or long-standing trading partners where there is no need to control the cargo through a negotiable document.
• A Through B/L is used in complex transportation chains covered by a single transport document.
• A Clean B/L is particularly important in documentary payment arrangements.
• An eBL can accelerate document processing when the electronic model is supported by all parties to the transaction.

Example of Transportation Through an NVOCC

Suppose a European importer purchases industrial goods from a manufacturer in Asia. The manufacturer hands the cargo over to an international freight forwarder acting as an NVOCC.

The NVOCC enters into its own contract with the ocean carrier. The ocean carrier issues a Master B/L in which the NVOCC or an affiliated party may be shown as the shipper or consignee, depending on the transportation structure.

At the same time, the NVOCC issues a House B/L to its customer reflecting the relationship between the actual seller, buyer, and contractual carrier.

If the payment terms require control through the original document, an Original B/L is used. If the seller has already received payment and there is no longer a need to retain the originals, the parties may, where permitted, use a Telex Release procedure. Where the parties have an established relationship and no document-of-title function is required, a Sea Waybill may be selected.

If a documentary credit is used, the structure of the document is determined not only by the logistics arrangement, but also by the bank's precise requirements and the wording of the credit.

Which Transport Document Should Be Selected?

This table does not classify types of bills of lading. Instead, it shows practical documentation options depending on the specific trade situation.

What Should Be Checked Before Selecting a B/L?

• Is it necessary to retain control over release of the cargo until payment is received?
• Is the cargo expected to be resold while in transit?
• Is a documentary credit or documentary collection being used?
• Is an NVOCC or freight forwarder involved in the transportation chain?
• Are Sea Waybill or Telex Release procedures permitted in the country of destination?
• Does the bank support the selected type of transport document?
• Do all participants support eBL if an electronic format is planned?
• Are there any special customs or port authority requirements?

How Can a Bill of Lading Be Verified Before Shipment?

There is no universal public database that can verify the authenticity of every bill of lading worldwide. Verification should be carried out through several checks.

1. Check the B/L number and booking through the carrier's official service, if this functionality is available.
2. Verify the name of the carrier and its agent.
3. Verify the Vessel and Voyage.
4. Verify the container and seal numbers.
5. Verify the Shipper, Consignee, and Notify Party.
6. Compare the cargo description with the invoice, packing list, and shipping instructions.
7. Check the number of originals and the status of the document.
8. If in doubt, contact the carrier using official contact information rather than details contained in a suspicious email.

Frequently Asked Questions About Bills of Lading

Conclusion

The bill of lading remains one of the key documents in international maritime trade because it combines transport and evidentiary functions and, for applicable types of document, a document-of-title function.

The choice between Original B/L, Order B/L, Straight B/L, House and Master B/L, Sea Waybill, Telex Release, and an electronic eBL should not be based solely on convenience of document handling. Payment arrangements, the possibility of resale while the goods are in transit, bank requirements, the transportation structure, applicable law, and the cargo release procedure must also be taken into account.

The main practical principle remains unchanged: bill of lading data should be agreed before the document is issued and checked alongside the commercial, banking, transport, and customs documents. This approach reduces the risk of cargo delays, documentary discrepancies, additional costs, and disputes between the parties to the transaction.

Key Regulations and Sources

The rules governing the preparation, transfer, and use of a bill of lading depend on applicable law, the carrier's terms, and the structure of the specific transaction. The principal legal and industry sources used in preparing this material are listed below.

• Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation, § 3 "Bill of Lading." Articles 142-149 regulate issuance of a bill of lading, the possibility of using other transport documents, contents and reservations, types of bills of lading, number of originals, transfer of the document, and disposal of cargo. 
  Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation, Articles 142-149
• Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation, Article 144 "Contents of a Bill of Lading." Establishes the main information that must be included in a bill of lading, as well as requirements for a shipped-on-board bill of lading after the cargo has been loaded onto the vessel. 
  Article 144 of the Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation
• Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation, Article 145 "Reservations in a Bill of Lading. Evidentiary Effect of a Bill of Lading." Regulates situations where the carrier cannot verify cargo information or has grounds to believe it is inaccurate. 
  Article 145 of the Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation
• Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation, Article 148 "Transfer of a Bill of Lading." Establishes the procedure for transferring straight, order, and bearer bills of lading. 
  Article 148 of the Merchant Shipping Code of the Russian Federation
• Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Article 142 "Securities." A bill of lading is expressly listed in the Civil Code among securities. 
  Article 142 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation
• ICC Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits, UCP 600. International Chamber of Commerce rules governing documentary credits. For transport documents, Articles 20-22, 26, and 27 are particularly important, covering the Bill of Lading, Non-Negotiable Sea Waybill, Charter Party Bill of Lading, Shipper's Load and Count notations, and Clean Transport Document requirements. 
  UCP 600 on the ICC website
• International Standard Banking Practice, ISBP. ICC practical standards for examining documents presented under documentary credits. The current edition supplements UCP 600 and addresses transport documents, signatures, and other aspects of bank document examination in detail. 
  ISBP, ICC
• Hague-Visby Rules. An international convention regime governing the liability of ocean carriers and carriage under bills of lading. The text is published by the Comité Maritime International. 
  Hague-Visby Rules, CMI
• Hamburg Rules 1978. United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea governing the rights and obligations of carriers, shippers, and consignees. 
  Hamburg Rules, UNCITRAL
• Rotterdam Rules 2008. United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea. Among other matters, it addresses electronic transport records and door-to-door carriage. 
  Rotterdam Rules, UNCITRAL 
  Current status of the Rotterdam Rules entering into force
• UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records, MLETR. The 2017 UNCITRAL Model Law establishes principles for legal recognition of electronic transferable records, including electronic bills of lading. 
  MLETR, UNCITRAL
• Digital Container Shipping Association, Bill of Lading Standard. DCSA industry standard for digitizing data and processes associated with Bills of Lading and Sea Waybills. 
  DCSA Bill of Lading Standard
• DCSA eBL Platform Interoperability. Materials on cross-platform exchange of electronic bills of lading. In June 2026, DCSA announced implementation of the interoperability standard by five eBL platforms. 
  DCSA: eBL interoperability, 2026